Information Systems
Study Guide

Desktop programs, enterprise software, utilities, and other programs that perform specific tasks for users and organizations.

Software that controls the computer hardware and establishes the standards for developing and executing applications. Acts as an intermediary between hardware and all other software.

The mechanism through which users interact with a computing device. Includes graphical elements (windows, scroll bars, buttons, menus, dialogue boxes) as well as touch screens, motion controllers, and tactile devices for the visually impaired.

Software stored on nonvolatile memory chips (not on hard drives or removable disks). Despite seeming permanent, many products allow firmware to be upgraded online or by connecting to another device.

The base-level commands for controlling a hardware device — including commands to read files from storage, execute programs, and boot an operating system on startup. Considered a lower-level set of control code than the OS itself.

Special-purpose software designed and included inside physical products, often stored on firmware. Embedded systems make devices "smarter" — sharing usage data, diagnosing problems, indicating maintenance schedules, providing alerts, or enabling devices to receive orders from other systems.

Applications that address the needs of multiple users throughout an organization or work group — as opposed to single-user desktop software.

A software package that integrates many business functions — including accounting, finance, inventory management, and human resources — into a single unified system.

Systems used to support customer-related sales and marketing activities — tracking interactions, managing leads, and maintaining customer data.

Systems that help a firm manage its value chain — from the flow of raw materials into the firm through delivery of finished products and services at the point of consumption.

Systems that use data created by other systems to provide reporting and analysis for organizational decision making.

Software for creating, maintaining, and manipulating data. An organization's DBMS can be set up to work with several applications both within and outside the firm.

A form of computing where systems in different locations communicate and collaborate to complete a task — as opposed to a single centralized machine doing all the work.

Can refer to (1) a hardware computer set up to receive requests from other computers, or (2) a software program that fulfills requests. Context determines which meaning is intended.

Software that houses and serves business logic for use and reuse by multiple applications. Acts as the middle tier between a database and user-facing applications.

Small pieces of code accessed via an application server that permit interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network.

Programming hooks, or guidelines, published by firms that tell other programs how to get a service to perform a task such as sending or receiving data. For example, Amazon publishes APIs so developers can build applications that send orders to Amazon.

A set of standards for exchanging messages containing formatted data between computer applications — an early form of machine-to-machine data exchange used especially in supply chains and finance.

A tagging language used to identify data fields made available for use by other applications. Most APIs and web services send messages where the data exchanged is wrapped in identifying XML tags.

A popular data interchange format and technology standard often used to format data when sent or received via APIs. Lighter-weight than XML and now the dominant format for web API communication.

The cost associated with each additional unit produced. In software, marginal costs are often near zero — once software is written, distributing one more copy costs almost nothing.

Software that is free and where anyone can view and potentially modify the source code. Linux is a prominent example.

The replacement of computing resources — an organization's or individual's hardware or software — with services provided over the internet.

A form of cloud computing where a firm subscribes to third-party software and receives a service delivered online — no local installation required.

A type of software that allows a single computer (or cluster of connected computers) to function as if it were several different computers, each running its own operating system and software. Virtualization underpins most cloud computing efforts and makes computing more efficient, cost-effective, and scalable.

An open source operating system found practically everywhere — credited as the most significant product in the OSS arsenal. It powers cell phones, stock exchanges, set-top boxes, supercomputers, and supports most web servers worldwide.

The collection of software used to build an information system — including front-end/client-side code, back-end/server-side code, the operating system, database, and middleware. A "full stack" developer can code both the customer-facing and server-side portions.

A popular open source software stack: Linux (OS), Apache (web server), MySQL (database), and a P-language — Perl, Python, or PHP.

The client-facing code that contains the user interface — including web apps served in a browser and smartphone apps. This is the part of the system users actually see and interact with.

The server-side code that users do not typically see — handles data storage, business logic, authentication, and communication between the database and the front-end.

The ability to either handle increasing workloads or to be easily expanded to manage workload increases. In a software context, systems that aren't scalable often require significant rewrites or the purchase of entirely new systems.

An economic measure of the full cost of owning a product — typically computing hardware and/or software. TCO includes direct costs (purchase price) plus indirect costs (training, support, and maintenance).

A type of virtualization that allows for shared operating systems, enabling more resource savings and faster execution. Containers still isolate applications so they can execute and move to different computing hardware — just like conventional virtualization, but more lightweight.

A setup where a firm runs an instance of a PC's software on a remote server and simply delivers the image of what's executing to the user's device. Using virtualization, a single server can run dozens of virtual PCs, simplifying backup, upgrades, security, and administration.

The three most common cloud service levels. SaaS (Software as a Service) delivers complete software online via subscription — the vendor handles everything. PaaS (Platform as a Service) provides tools to develop, test, and deploy software in the cloud. IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service) offers raw computing, storage, and networking resources — most control, most responsibility.

A form of cloud computing where a firm subscribes to third-party software delivered online. SaaS companies handle everything — providing the software, securely storing and backing up data, and running it all on their own hardware.

Delivers tools — a platform — so an organization can develop, test, and deploy software in the cloud. These tools include programming languages, database software, testing and deployment software, and an operating system.

Offers an organization a bare-bones set of services as an alternative to buying physical hardware. Computing, storage, and networking resources are available over the internet, paid for based on usage. Firms get the most basic offerings but also the most customization — supplying their own OS, databases, and programming languages on top.

A negotiated agreement between a customer and a vendor that specifies committed levels of availability, serviceability, performance, and other operational requirements.

Products and services designed to target a specific industry — such as pharmaceutical, legal, or apparel retail — rather than a broad, general market.

The use of cloud computing to provide excess capacity during periods of spiking demand. Cloudbursting is a scalability solution that typically functions as an overflow service — kicking in as needed when local or baseline capacity is exceeded.

Devices with very little local computing power that perform the bulk of their computing and storage over the network, "in the cloud." Smart speakers and TV streaming sticks are examples. The term also describes browser-based applications where most computing happens remotely, such as SaaS tools like Salesforce.

The dominant cloud computing provider, controlling about one-third of the world's cloud computing market — a share roughly as large as the next two competitors combined.

The trend of employees bringing consumer technologies into the workplace, resulting in blossoming creativity and access to new tools. Costs may be lower than homegrown solutions, and staff could introduce the firm to tools not otherwise on the IS department's radar.

Provides the standards, syntax, statements, and instructions for writing computer software.

An application that bundles a programmer's essential tools in one place — including an editor (a programmer's word processor), a debugger, and a compiler, among others.

Programming tools that execute within an application. Rather than being compiled to run directly on a microprocessor, scripting languages are interpreted within their host applications.

Highly visual software development tools that allow users to create information systems with little to no coding required.

Methods to divide up tasks related to software creation and deployment into targeted activities, aimed at building better products with stronger product management guidelines and techniques.

A process for planning, creating, testing, and deploying an information system. The SDLC typically moves through: planning → analysis → design → testing → implementation → maintenance.

A relatively linear, sequential approach to software development. Benefits include surfacing requirements upfront and creating a blueprint to follow. Often criticized for being too rigid, slow, and demanding project forethought that's difficult to completely identify early on.

The expansion of the scope of a project — new features and requirements are added after development has begun, stretching timelines and budgets.

Developing work continually and iteratively, with a goal of more frequent product rollouts and constant improvement across smaller components of a larger project.

An approach to organizing and managing agile projects that breaks deliverables into "sprints" of one to six weeks, delivered by teams of fewer than ten. Scrum defines roles (functions), ceremonies (meetings), and artifacts (documentation and tracking).

Represents the "voice of the customer" in a scrum team. Advocates for the needs of the organization, helps set requirements, and is ultimately held accountable for deliverables.

Ensuring that an organization's systems operate within required legal constraints and industry and organizational obligations.

An economic measure of the full cost of owning a product — typically computing hardware and/or software. Includes direct costs (purchase price) plus indirect costs (training, support, and maintenance).

A process-improvement approach — useful for but not limited to software engineering — that assists in assessing the maturity, quality, and development of organizational business processes and suggests steps for improvement.

Non-IT employees who create applications or enhance existing systems, often without formal software development training. They typically leverage no-code/low-code platforms or other approved tools to build solutions that meet business or personal needs.

A foundational project management concept describing the three interdependent factors that influence every project: Scope (what the project delivers), Time (deadlines and schedules), and Cost (budget and staffing). Changing one factor requires adjusting at least one of the others.

Adding more people to a late software project makes it later. New team members require ramp-up time and increase coordination overhead, slowing the existing team rather than accelerating delivery.

The extra time and effort required to manage communication, collaboration, and task alignment among team members. As team size grows, coordination overhead increases — directly related to why Brook's Law holds true.